Historical Climate Changes by Region (1975–2025)

Climate change has affected every region on the globe in the last 50 years, though impacts vary by location ipcc.chipcc.ch. Table 1 summarizes observed changes by continent, including temperature deviations from past norms, shifts in ecosystems and agriculture, habitability concerns, and changes in extreme weather and sea level.

Key Observations: In summary, global temperature has increased ~0.85–1.0 °C since 1970, with land areas and high latitudes warming fastest ipcc.chcarbonbrief.org. The frequency of extreme heat events is up in all continents, while cold extremes have declined ipcc.chipcc.ch. Climate change has already slowed agricultural productivity growth globally over the last 50 years (medium confidence), particularly in low-latitude countries where heat and drought have hit yields (while higher latitudes saw some gains) ipcc.ch. Many plant and animal species ranges are shifting toward higher latitudes/altitudes in response to warming, and planting zones (like USDA hardiness zones in North America) have migrated poleward as winters have warmed climatecentral.orgclimatecentral.org. Habitability is increasingly strained in the tropics – regions of West Asia, the Persian Gulf, and South Asia now experience occasional wet-bulb temperatures near the 35 °C threshold of human survivability (briefly reached in Pakistan and the Gulf) science.nasa.gov. Climate-related disasters have become more frequent and intense: heavy rainfall events and flooding are up in most regions ipcc.ch; droughts are more intense or prolonged in traditionally arid regions (Mediterranean, southern Africa, southwest US, etc.) ipcc.chipcc.ch; wildfire activity has increased with hotter, drier conditions (e.g. record fires in North America, Australia, Mediterranean) ipcc.chvox.com; and the proportion of major tropical cyclones (Category 4–5) has risen (linked to warmer oceans) ipcc.ch. Ocean heat content is at record highs (the oceans have absorbed >90% of excess heat), fueling marine heatwaves that bleach coral reef sipcc.ch. Global sea level rose about 15 cm during the 20th century and the rate has tripled in recent decades (from ~1.3 mm/yr early 1900s to 3.7 mm/yr recently) ipcc.ch, resulting in more frequent coastal flooding even on calm days. These observed changes set the stage for future disruption.

Table 2. Projected Mid-Century Climate Changes (≈2075) – Best vs. Worst Case Scenarios (assuming current mitigation pledges for best case, and high-emission continuation for worst case):

Likely Stages of Disruption: In all regions, climate disruptions will intensify stage by stage. Initially, we see stress on ecosystems and agriculture (e.g. coral bleaching, crop yield dips in hot years). Next, impacts on human systems grow – heatwaves strain health and power grids, water shortages hit cities, disasters cause spikes in displacement. By the 2070s, under worst-case warming, some regions enter a stage of systemic breakdown: concurrent crop failures, infrastructural failures (e.g. rail lines, roads buckling in extreme heat vox.comvox.com; permafrost roads collapsing arctictoday.com), and habitability limits being reached on the hottest days. Conversely, aggressive mitigation (best case) would limit the disruption stages: many regions would face serious challenges but not outright unmanageability – giving more time for adaptation measures to protect communities.

Projected Climate Changes (2025–2075) by Region

Using the historical trends and the latest scientific projections, we can anticipate how each region’s climate will evolve over the next 50 years. Future changes will depend on global mitigation efforts: a best-case scenario (strong climate action, roughly corresponding to limiting warming to ~2 °C or less by 2100) versus a worst-case scenario (high emissions, ~3–4 °C or more of global warming by 2100) ipcc.ch. Here we outline likely mid-21st-century changes for each continent under these scenarios, including expected stages of climate disruption:

• North America: Temperatures will continue to rise, with northern areas warming the most (Canada and Alaska could see winter temperatures +4–6 °C above late-20th-century norms by 2075 under high emissions ipcc.ch). Best case: Warming is moderate (+2 °C or so), allowing some adaptation; the northern US and Canada become more agriculturally productive, but the Southwest remains arid. Worst case: The American Southwest enters a permanent “mega-drought” state by mid-century (similar to or worse than recent 20-year drought), severely stressing water resources like the Colorado Riveripcc.ch. Wildfire seasons in the western US and Canada lengthen further and burn larger areas (fire weather days up significantly) ipcc.chipcc.ch. The Southeast and Gulf Coast face even hotter summers and stronger hurricanes – high-end models project an increase in the frequency of Category 4–5 hurricanes with higher rainfall rates ipcc.ch. Coastal cities (New York, Miami, New Orleans, Vancouver) will see more frequent tidal flooding; by 2075 sea level along the U.S. coast is likely 0.3–0.6 m higher than 2000 (even in best case, some rise is locked in) ipcc.chipcc.ch. Inland, the Midwest and Northeast will likely get wetter in winter and spring (more heavy rain/flooding events) ipcc.ch, but also face occasional droughts in summer. Habitability: Most North American cities remain habitable, though heatwaves intensify – by 2075, parts of the Midwest (e.g. Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa) could hit the dangerous 35 °C wet-bulb threshold on the worst days science.nasa.govscience.nasa.gov under a high scenario, challenging infrastructure and human health.
• Europe: Europe is projected to warm faster than the global average in all scenarios ipcc.ch. Northern Europe will get warmer and generally wetter in winters, with more frequent winter floods ipcc.ch. Southern Europe (Mediterranean) is a hotspot of concern: by the 2050s, even in a moderate scenario, summers in the Med could be 3–4 °C hotter than late-20th-century, with much drier conditions (precipitation in summer down perhaps 10–30%) ipcc.ch. Best case: Europe manages to limit warming to ~2 °C. Northern Europe’s climate becomes milder with longer growing seasons (but more heavy rain). Southern Europe still becomes hotter and drier, pushing the climate into a semi-arid state in parts of Spain, Italy, Greece, but perhaps manageable with adaptation. Alpine glaciers would mostly disappear even in best case (losing >80% of 2000 volume by 2075). Worst case: Warming exceeds 4 °C in Europe by late century ipcc.ch. Southern Europe could see persistent drought conditions by the 2070s (multi-year droughts much more frequent) ipcc.chipcc.ch. Water scarcity and heat could significantly reduce agriculture in Spain, Italy, Balkans (many rain-fed crops may fail in summers). The Mediterranean Sea region would experience more wildfires and ecosystem shifts toward desert-like conditions ipcc.chipcc.ch. Northern Europe under worst case would also face more extreme rainfall and floods (as warmer air delivers more precipitation); coastal flooding along North Sea and Baltic will increase with ~0.5 m or more of SLR. Habitability: Europe’s biggest challenge will be extreme heat in previously temperate areas – e.g. France, Germany, UK could see summer highs well above 40 °C regularly in worst case (the UK’s unheard-of 40 °C in 2022 could become routine). Infrastructure not built for such heat (railways, roads) will require upgrades vox.comvox.com. Nonetheless, Europe’s high adaptive capacity means it can likely avoid uninhabitability, though southern coastal zones might be partly abandoned if fresh water becomes insufficient or coastlines are lost to sea rise.
• Asia: Asia’s future is crucial as it hosts billions. South Asia (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh): Worst-case scenario (≈4 °C global rise) would be devastating – by 2075, average summer highs could be +5 °C above today in parts of India, and deadly wet-bulb temperatures >35 °C could occur regularly in the Indus and Ganges valleys science.nasa.govscience.nasa.gov. This would surpass human physiological limits for outdoor activity, making parts of South Asia dangerously hot for much of the year. Best case: If global warming is held ~2 °C, South Asia still sees more frequent heatwaves, but perhaps fewer occurrences of wet-bulb 35°C (mostly avoided, though wet-bulb 31–33 °C events would still pose lethal risk without adaptation) science.nasa.gov. The South Asian monsoon is projected to strengthen overall in a warmer world (more total rain in a best-case or mid scenario) ipcc.ch, but also to become more erratic – larger year-to-year swings, and possibly later onset ipcc.ch. Expect more extreme rainfall events causing megafloods (as already seen in Pakistan 2022) as well as longer dry spells between monsoons. East and Southeast Asia: Projected to get warmer (China’s interior warming ~3–4 °C by 2075 worst-case) and generally wetter on average in the north, but with more uneven rainfall (risk of both floods and droughts). Stronger typhoons are expected to hit East Asia (China, Japan, Korea) with higher intensity and rainfall ipcc.ch. Coastal megacities like Shanghai, Bangkok, Mumbai face a triple threat: rising seas (perhaps +0.5 m by 2075 worst-case), land subsidence, and stronger storm surges – by mid-century these cities will need significant flood defenses or managed retreat. West/Central Asia and Middle East: Will get much hotter and drier. By 2075 in a high scenario, summers in the Gulf states and Iran could routinely hit 50 °C+ air temperatures, with many days of extreme humidity; parts of the Middle East may approach uninhabitable heat conditions for non-air-conditioned populations science.nasa.govscience.nasa.gov. Water scarcity will worsen in the Middle East and Central Asian republics (glaciers feeding Central Asia’s rivers will be greatly diminished by mid-century, reducing summer flows ipcc.chipcc.ch). Habitability: In worst-case scenario, parts of South Asia and the Persian Gulf region could face chronic life-threatening heat by 2075, potentially forcing seasonal migration or technological adaptation (e.g. cooled shelters) to survive science.nasa.govscience.nasa.gov. Best case would still see major challenges (e.g. a city like Karachi might see wet-bulb ~32 °C peaks instead of 35+, still extremely hazardous). High mountain communities in the Himalayas will struggle with glacier loss (affecting water and causing glacial lake outburst flood risks). East and Southeast Asian populations will adapt to more heat stress and intense storms, but wealthy nations like Japan and South Korea are better equipped to adapt than poorer rural communities in Southeast Asia.
• Africa: Africa’s future climate is one of amplified stress, especially under high emissions. The continent is highly vulnerable due to existing aridity and limited adaptive resources ipcc.ch. General warming: By 2075, Africa is projected to warm about 1.5× faster than the global rate under most scenarios ipcc.ch, meaning possibly +3–4 °C (best case +2 °C) above late 20th century in many regions. Rainfall: North Africa/Mediterranean will almost certainly get drier – continuing the trend of less cool-season rain. The Sahel zone is more complex: some models suggest increased monsoon rainfall in the central Sahel under warming (due to a northward shift of monsoons) while others suggest continued volatility ipcc.ch. Best case: Some African regions benefit from slight rainfall increases – e.g. East Africa (“long rains”) might increase, helping crops, but too much increase could also mean floods. Even best case, however, sees more frequent heatwaves in all parts of Africa and continued glacier loss (e.g. Mount Kilimanjaro’s remaining ice likely gone before 2040). Worst case: Large parts of Africa could become practically unfarmable in summer without adaptive measures. For example, West African cities could see dozens of extremely humid 35 °C wet-bulb days by late century, and the combination of heat and humidity might exceed human tolerance in the tropical parts science.nasa.gov. Crop failures would increase; even drought-adapted staples may wither under relentless heat. Natural disasters: Both best and worst cases see heavy rainfall extremes intensifying – flash floods in East, West, and Central Africa will worsen (already, with +1 °C warming, events like the 2022 Nigeria floods or 2020 East Africa floods have been catastrophic; these become more frequent). Tropical cyclones may strike the Mozambique channel region slightly more often or with greater intensity in a warmer world (though still relatively infrequent). Sea level rise will threaten Africa’s populated low-lying coasts (e.g. Nile Delta, West African coast): by 2075 worst case, Lagos, Alexandria, and other coastal megacities face chronic flooding without major sea defenses. Habitability: Parts of Africa (e.g. the Sahel, parts of the Horn) face potential partial uninhabitability in worst case due to a combination of extreme heat, water scarcity, and collapse of agricultural viability. High wet-bulb temperatures (above 32 °C) in tropical Africa will cause high heat-stress mortality without widespread adaptation (e.g. cooling centers). Best case would reduce these risks, but still requires significant adaptation as half of the world’s highly climate-vulnerable population lives in Africa ipcc.ch.
• Central and South America: Temperatures will continue to climb above the global mean rate ipcc.ch. Amazonia and Central America are projected to see some of the largest increases in extreme heat (on top of already hot climates). By 2075, the Amazon could have an additional +4–5 °C of warming in a high scenario, resulting in up to 5 extra months of the year with >35°C daily highs compared to now ipcc.ch. Rainfall: Patterns will shift: the northwestern Amazon (Colombia/Ecuador and parts of Peru) is expected to get wetter (more total rain) ipcc.ch, while the eastern Amazon and Northeast Brazil likely get drier (especially in dry season) ipcc.ch. The Central American and Caribbean dry season is projected to lengthen, and drought frequency increase (medium-high confidence) ipcc.ch. Best case: Warming kept to ~2 °C might avert a collapse of the Amazon rainforest – the forest could remain, albeit in a stressed condition, and still generate regional rainfall. Some intensification of heavy rains and floods would occur in south Brazil and Argentina (continuing the trend of wetter summers in Southeast South America) ipcc.ch. Andean glaciers would mostly vanish even in best case (many small glaciers gone by 2050, affecting communities in Peru, Bolivia). Worst case: A critical threshold could be crossed in the Amazon where large swaths, especially in the east, shift from rainforest to savanna due to heat, drought, and fire – a potential “Amazon tipping point” that models suggest could happen under ~3–4 °C warming. This would further reduce regional rainfall and release massive carbon. Central America in worst case faces chronic drought and crop failures (the “Dry Corridor” of Central America could become a near-desert, driving migration). Hurricanes hitting the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico coasts may become even more damaging with higher sea levels and storm intensities. Sea level by 2075 (worst case +0.5 m or more) will threaten low-lying islands – some small coral islands may become uninhabitable from erosion and saltwater intrusion (many Caribbean communities already plan relocations). Habitability: In worst case, parts of coastal tropical South America (e.g. northeastern Brazil) might face combinations of extreme heat and humidity that significantly strain habitability (though generally slightly lower humidity than Asian monsoon regions, so wet-bulb extremes may top out around 31–33 °C – still lethal without precautions). High elevation cities (e.g. Andean capitals) will warm considerably but remain relatively mild compared to lowlands; however, water supply issues (due to glacier loss and changing rainfall) could challenge those cities. Best-case scenario avoids the most catastrophic outcomes, but even then livelihood disruptions (fisheries declines, increased floods and droughts) will test the region’s adaptive capacity.
• Oceania (Australia, New Zealand, Pacific Islands): Warming in Australia is projected to continue at or above the global pace. By 2075, Australian annual mean temperatures could be +2.5 °C (best case) to +4 °C (worst case) above late-20th-century averages. This means far more days above 40 °C in summer – in worst case, cities like Sydney or Melbourne might see 20–30 days/year over 40°C by late century. Rainfall: The already observed trend of winter rainfall decline in southwestern and southeastern Australia is expected to persist, especially under high emissions (further reducing cool-season rain in the Southern Agricultural areas) ipcc.ch. The Australian Monsoon in the north may intensify slightly (more wet-season rain) but come with longer dry spells. New Zealand will likely get wetter on the west coast, drier in the east, with more floods in worst case due to heavy rain bursts. Pacific Islands: will experience higher sea levels, coral reef loss, and intense cyclones. Best case: Pacific coral reefs might have a chance to partially survive (though even at +1.5 °C global, an estimated 70–90% of warm-water coral reefs could perish). Island communities may adapt with coastal defenses up to a point. Australia in a best case still contends with worse fire weather and some irreversible ecosystem shifts (e.g. loss of alpine species, more coral bleaching). Worst case: By 2075, many low-lying atoll nations (Tuvalu, Marshall Islands) could be effectively uninhabitable due to chronic flooding and groundwater salinization. Australia under high warming faces dramatically increased wildfire risk — fire seasons starting earlier, burning more area (the forested southeast could see what are currently once-in-a-century firestorms every few years). The Great Barrier Reef in this scenario would likely be functionally dead (experiencing annual bleaching, preventing recovery) ipcc.ch. Habitability: Most of Australia’s population centers remain habitable but will endure frequent extreme heat (necessitating infrastructure like heat-resilient power grids and cooling centers to prevent mass casualties). New Zealand remains relatively less affected (still a temperate refuge, though not immune to sea-level rise in coastal cities and heavier rains). Pacific islanders may need to relocate in large numbers – climate-driven displacement from atolls is a serious risk by mid-century absent aggressive adaptation and mitigation.
• Polar Regions: Changes in the polar areas by 2075 will be dramatic, especially in a high-emissions future. Arctic: The Arctic is virtually certain to continue warming at 2–4× the global rate ipcc.chipcc.ch. By mid-century, the Arctic will occasionally be summer-ice-free (an event expected at least once by 2050 under all scenarios) ipcc.ch. Best case: If warming is limited to ~1.5–2 °C, the Arctic might retain some summer sea ice most years, and permafrost loss might be somewhat constrained (though still significant). Even then, expect additional permafrost thaw to release carbon and disrupt infrastructure – by 2050, an estimated 70% of near-surface permafrost area could thaw under moderate emissions nature.com, jeopardizing roads, pipelines, and buildings (e.g. many Alaska and Siberia structures will require retrofitting or abandonment due to ground collapse). Worst case: If global warming reaches ~4 °C, Arctic warming could be 8 °C or more. This would fully transform Arctic ecosystems – virtually all late-summer sea ice gone every year, most of the top 10–15 meters of permafrost thawed, and the Arctic Ocean becoming seasonally like the Atlantic in terms of open water. The Greenland Ice Sheet melt would accelerate, potentially approaching a tipping point of irreversible loss (though that plays out over centuries, by 2075 it could be contributing >10 mm/year to sea level if rapid collapse processes kick in). Antarctic: Antarctic outcomes diverge more between scenarios. Best case (≤2 °C global) likely maintains most of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet stability and only modest loss from West Antarctica. Worst case (~4 °C) raises the risk of destabilizing West Antarctic ice, which could add multiple meters to sea level over centuries – by 2075, we might already see an abrupt uptick in ice loss. West Antarctic ice shelves will likely have substantially retreated or collapsed in a high scenario, initiating faster glacier flow. Sea level: By 2075, global sea level rise is projected to be roughly 0.4 m (best case) to 0.8 m (worst case) above 2000 levels ipcc.chipcc.ch. (The IPCC’s likely range for 2100 is 0.3–0.6 m in low scenario to ~1 m in very high scenario ipcc.ch; 2075 would be a bit less, but approaching those figures.) Such rise will dramatically increase coastal flooding frequency across the world – what used to be once-in-100-year high water levels could become annual events in many locations ipcc.chipcc.ch. Habitability: While no one “lives” permanently in the Arctic interior, these changes will profoundly impact Indigenous communities, flora/fauna, and global climate feedbacks. The potential release of carbon from permafrost and methane hydrates in a worst case could further accelerate global warming (a dangerous feedback loop). Antarctic changes mostly manifest as global sea-level rise, affecting coasts worldwide. In short, by 2075 the polar regions in any scenario look very different from today – but strong mitigation can slow the changes and avoid some worst outcomes (like preventing massive long-term ice sheet collapse).

Climate Resilience and Habitable Regions in 2075

Even as climate change affects every corner of the planet, some regions will remain more resilient and relatively habitable than others by 2075. Key factors include: moderate temperatures, reliable water supply, arable land productivity, lower exposure to sea level rise or extreme storms, and strong societal adaptive capacity. No area will be entirely untouched by climate change time.com, but differences in impact will be stark. Broadly, regions at higher latitudes (further from the equator) and higher elevations (not low-lying) are projected to fare better than the tropics in terms of avoiding extreme heat and maintaining food/water resources time.comtime.com. Also, regions with stable governments and infrastructure can more effectively implement adaptation (e.g. flood defenses, advanced agriculture), bolstering livability time.com.

Based on current projections, the most climate-resilient and habitable areas by 2075 are likely to include:

• Northern and Central Europe: Countries like Scandinavia (Norway, Sweden, Finland) and Great Britain are positioned relatively well. They will see warmer climates than today but should remain far from the unlivable heat of the tropics. These nations also have strong economies to adapt (e.g. heating demands drop while cooling demands rise modestly). Northern Europe is wet and will stay water-rich (though flood management will be crucial). Crop potential may actually improve in parts of Northern Europe with a longer growing season (assuming global food systems adapt) ipcc.ch. By 2075, southern England or southern Scandinavia may have a climate similar to today’s central Europe – still temperate. Habitable appeal: Low risk of wet-bulb extremes; abundant water (except maybe in southern Europe which is less resilient); advanced infrastructure (the Netherlands, for example, has the capacity to manage sea level rise up to a point). Nordic nations today rank among the lowest in climate vulnerability and highest in readiness time.comtime.com.
• Canada and the Northern United States: The Great Lakes region and parts of southern Canada are often cited as potential “climate havens.” They have plentiful freshwater (the Great Lakes system), rich soils, and a temperate climate that will remain relatively mild even after a couple degrees of warming. By 2075, cities like Toronto, Montreal, Minneapolis, or Chicago will be warmer than historically but generally spared the most extreme heat (with heat index occasionally high but manageable). These areas are also inland enough to avoid sea-level rise and hurricanes, and historically have fewer wildfires than the western US. New York and New England may also remain livable, though coastal cities will have to adapt to sea rise. Overall, North America’s northern tier (New England, Upper Midwest, Pacific Northwest, and most of Canada’s populated strip) could become a refuge with a longer growing season and still moderate climate, as lower-latitude areas become less hospitable time.com. Importantly, these regions’ nations have high adaptive capacity and could accommodate climate migrants given planning.
• Parts of Asia at Higher Latitudes or Elevations: Large parts of Asia will face harsh conditions, but far northern Asia (for instance, parts of northern Russia) will become much warmer than today – potentially turning permafrost tundra into seasonally productive land. However, challenges (thawing ground, lack of infrastructure, and governance issues) complicate Russia’s resilience. More promising are regions like northern Kazakhstan or areas around the Altai Mountains – currently cold, sparsely populated grasslands that could support more agriculture with warming (assuming water availability holds). In East Asia, northern Japan (Hokkaido) and northern China (Manchuria) might be relative havens – they warm but stay cooler than the rest of Asia, and could remain food baskets if water is managed. However, China’s water scarcity in the north is a concern even now, so “habitable” here assumes advances in water infrastructure. Korean Peninsula and northern Japan will have hot summers but likely can cope due to development levels. Himalayan highlands could be cooler refuges for populations escaping extreme heat, but glacier loss might dry up some of their water by late century.
• New Zealand and Southern Australia: New Zealand stands out as a highly resilient location – a temperate maritime climate (no extreme heat), ample rainfall and fertile land, isolated from large climate conflict zones. By 2075, NZ will be warmer (with north of NZ perhaps semi-subtropical), but still very moderate compared to much of the world. It also has robust governance and could support more people than its current population. Parts of southern Australia (e.g. Tasmania or cooler coastal Victoria) will remain more livable than Australia’s north, but Australia overall will be quite hot. Tasmania’s climate in 2075 might resemble today’s northern NZ – making it an attractive refuge within Australia.
• Southern South America (Patagonia): The southern tip of South America (Chile and Argentina’s Patagonia region) is currently cool and relatively dry in parts, but as the world warms it may become milder for habitation. It’s one of the few sizable landmasses in the Southern Hemisphere outside the tropics. Projections suggest parts of Patagonia could stay within a comfortable temperature range and even see increased rainfall in some areas ipcc.ch. Already, nations like Uruguay and southern Chile/Argentina have comparatively high adaptive capacity in Latin America. The limitation is that much of Patagonia is mountainous or arid – only certain pockets (the lake districts, some valley plains) are suitable for larger populations. Still, relative to sweltering Amazon or Central America, Patagonia will remain a climate haven.

In general, inland or upland regions with large freshwater resources and low exposure to sea-level rise will be the places of refuge. Examples often given include the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence basin, parts of the U.S. Pacific Northwest (though wildfire risk there is rising), the Baltic region (Scandinavia around the Baltic Sea), or mountainous regions that retain snowmelt (like perhaps the Alps or Southern Alps of NZ, albeit those have their own risks). These regions combine a historically temperate climate that shifts into the “warmer but still tolerable” range, plus generally lower incidence of the most destructive climate hazards (for instance, away from hurricane/cyclone belts, away from low-lying flood-prone coasts, and away from current desert belts) time.com.

It’s important to note that societal resilience will be as decisive as climate conditions. Some regions might be physically capable of supporting large populations under climate change but lack the political or economic stability to do so. The most resilient regions in 2075 will thus likely be those that pair favorable geography with strong governance and technology. Many of the countries in higher latitudes (Canada, Scandinavia, New Zealand, UK, etc.) not only have a cooler climate but also rank high on indices of adaptive capacity (education, infrastructure, governance) time.com. This means they can better exploit any “climate advantages” and buffer the impacts (for instance, by building sea walls, developing heat-resistant crops, etc.). Indeed, wealthier northern nations are already planning for potential influxes of people and investment due to their relative climate safety.